Web Radio, Music and Globalisation
As a consequence of the ongoing acceptance of digital technologies, the very nature of radio is transforming; with this steady technical and social metamorphosis come questions of radio uses, of its programming, of its potential for the individual listener creating his or her own unique schedule, and also the pertinent question of globalisation, or 'the widening, deepening and speeding up of worldwide interconnectedness' (Held, 1999: 1-2: from Hendy, 2000: 5). When considering issues of the globalisation of music, of particular interest is its carrier or the communicating medium that is involved in its dissemination. Theorists, such as Negus, have explored the crucial part the recording has played as a principal medium of music, and its role as instigating the divide between performer and audience, and more importantly for this discussion, between music, culture and place. Radio, as a communicating body of such music recordings, and although perhaps still thought of as a local, national or regional medium, 'is nonetheless a medium that is fully part of the electronic mass-media environment.....with global dimensions and a global reach that gives it an influential place in shaping our cultural lives.' (Hendy, 2000: 5). Although most enquiries into globalisation of culture tend to focus around other media such as television or film, it is important to look at the music industries as they are equally important in aiding the localisation, regionalisation and nationalisation of culture (Thornton: see Bibliography). And with the advent of web radio, do issues of globalisation take on ever more significance?
The advent of web radio has been compared by some to the birth of the radio in the early twentieth century: both encountered struggles of sound quality, experienced the inconvenience of poor signalling and transmission, and both also had to grapple with the issue of the medium's immobility (Priestman: 2002: 2). But web radio is very different to analogue radio in many other ways, including, for example, the combination of sound and music with image and text, owing to the very nature of the Internet itself. Defined mainly by the characteristics of the Internet (e.g. it is instantaneous, it is a two-way flow of information unlimited by national boundaries rather then the one directional analogue radio broadcast), the web radio is inherently different from what can now be considered as 'traditional' radio. Of particular importance is the potential global reach of all web radio stations, its constant accessibility across all time zones and implications of these issues upon music.
Many theorists have written on the subject of the recording industry and the implications of globalisation that result from international sales. Hendy, for example, marks the recent internationalized commodification of recorded pop music, and its distribution by huge conglomerate companies (2000:62), and suggests that 'This music is recorded, produced, marketed, seen and heard globally, and pervasively.' (63) He then goes on to mark Scanell's investigation of a Zimbabwean radio (1997) which is dominated not by local music but by western rap and raga, 'consequently almost all the copyright payments made by ZBC go into the pockets of leading American and British bands.' This field of enquiry clearly leads to the idea that the globalisation of music has the potential to lead to a global genre of bland, homogeneous, market-driven music where there is no place for innovation, only the imitation of previously successful formulas.
There is a fear that such cultural imperialism will be propelled by web radio, with its borderless accessibility and freedom of choice. However, in many ways this cultural imperialism model is insufficient when discussing the globalisation of music. For example, it could be argued that the model too effortlessly renders Anglo-American pop and rock music with homogeny, perhaps choosing to ignore its qualities which can be heard to be characterised by a certain degree of cross-fertilisation and fusion of music, which is as a direct result of the global reach of some music, aided currently perhaps by web radio. The model of cultural imperialism could also be accused of actually representing a kind of cultural or ethnic essentialism, proposing for example that jazz music can only be played by black Americans, when this clearly not the case. In addition, it would also be easy to suggest Anglo-American rock and pop music represents corporate and manufactured production, whereas native, local or indigenous music represents purity or authenticity. Of course this is not the case, and web radio could provide the natural forum and location for music, which is not in isolation from other forms of music, but in constant dialogue with other regional, local, national and international music. Critics suggesting a homogeny of music should be cautious of withdrawing into a sense of nostalgia in the attempt to conserve the essentialist model of music as the pure and idealised past.
'Radio networking, then, is not always and everywhere intrinsically a force for destroying difference and variety' (Hendy: 2000: 63), indeed, the web radio can perhaps be seen 'as a window on the world', rather than a destructive force that damages music irreparably. And as Hendy goes on to offer,
'If, as Garofalo argues (1992:6), millions of people around the world buy Michael Jackson's records, not because they have been duped by imperialist power but because his music resonates 'with the cultural sensibilities of a broad international audience, it is the radio industry, as part of the international marketplace for music, which has played a central role in fostering this global resonance.' (Hendy: 2000: 63-64)
Maybe, therefore, instead of web radio offering yet more opportunities for the standardization of music, perhaps the sounds and ideologies it permeates actually have the power to open up global access to music and cater for thousands of tastes and preferences. In addition, given such cross-pollination of music, perhaps the web radio can supersede old theories of authenticity expounded by ideas of cultural imperialism, and actually refresh music with innovative hybrid forms and new forms of authenticities.
Priestman, in his book called Web Radio doesn't really address issues of globalisation as such, but does touch upon global audiences and their potential: 'Radio, when practitioners turn their minds to it, can be about nurturing audiences, drawing disparate individuals into a sense of relationship for the time they are listening.' (Priestman: 2002:226). Drawing on theoretical grounding by Rheingold and Douglas amongst others, Priestman here is addressing the potential benefits of web radio, of forging virtual communities, and this is a very important part of web broadcasting. Web radio has the potential to attract local, national and international audiences all at the same time, tapping into all of these markets by offering a certain amount of listener interaction, and proposing that the individual schedule his or her own radio from the computer. Hendy is, however, confused by this idea, exclaiming 'Is the radio industry becoming a localized, fragmented industry, or a homogenized, consolidated global one?' (Hendy: 2000:60). This is a very pertinent question which goes hand in hand with issues surrounding globalisation, and is a question which, until web radio is given time to develop, will probably remained unanswered. Web radio is still in its absolute infancy when compared to other mediums of communication, and time alone will tell in which direction radio will turn.
With all of the apparent discussions about the potential of web radio currently surfacing, could it be that theories that run counter to fears of globalisation or those that suggest web radio will open up a 'world' of exciting cultural opportunities, are actually proposing somewhat of a utopian vision? Web radio allows for the free dissemination of music and sound from anyone who decides to set up a web radio station, to a prospective global audience. But as radio has traditionally been considered as a regional, local or national medium, can it hope to work on a global scale? The inconvenience also of having to turn on your computer and tune into the radio seems inconceivable to some, and would perhaps be a barrier to many potential listeners. So perhaps the argument of instantaneousness is devalued somewhat by the very technology, the personal computer that is needed for dissemination and consumption of the web radio. Web radio is not like getting in your car and turning on the radio, or having the radio wake you up in the morning; in this sense, it is culturally and socially shaping our lives in a very different and less accessible way.
The web radio is only for those who have a computer, and those who are not scared by the prospect of an infantile technology like web radio. It may be the case that most potential web radio listeners rely on more steadfast media which have stood the test of time, as the analogue radio has. Moreover, if the inaccessibility of web radio continues to dissuade listeners from actually listening, globalisation, in its most powerful sense, cannot possibly be felt. And, as Priestman offers, ‘we cannot discount the listener and, for instance, the possibility they may remain unmoved by any of these digital options.' (Priestman: 2002: xi). It may well be that this digital technology holds potential for the future, but the effects of globalisation will not be fully felt if its potential is not wholly realised.
All discussions thus far concerning the relationship between the web radio and the globalisation of music have presupposed that web radio is accessible for all. However, this is obviously not the case. Globalisation, it seems, is very selective: not all the world is listening, and not all the world is able to listen. The digital divide means that ‘the ability to transmit and receive these messages is dependent upon access to the means of information production and telecommunication and the distribution of technologies of reception.' (Negus in Sreberny-Mohammadi et al: 1997: 271). A survey undertaken in November 2000, cited in Priestman's book, found that in numbers of Internet connections in millions, USA and Canada held the largest share at 167.12, with Europe coming in second at 113.14. However, Africa had just 3.11 and the Middle East just 2.40. (Source: from Priestman: 2002: 51: http://www.nua.ie/surveys/how_many_online/index.html ). Although the numbers of Internet connections will have changed slightly in the fives years since the survey was embarked on, essentially it shows clearly that not everyone has access to the Web, so fears of global effects are simply not applicable. When it comes to globalisation only the more affluent countries of Europe, North America, Australia and Japan are actually economically and culturally involved in the process.
In conclusion, it seems that there are many anxieties and questions raised when discussing the nature and potential of the new technology of the web radio. And as Priestman explains, 'The point to emphasize is that web radio is still a very young, imperfect technology. We do not know yet what kind of a medium it will settle into. There is nothing automatic or predestined about that. It will depend on how listeners use it and above all on how enthusiasts shape its content.' (Priestman:2002:26). Certainly there is potential for the transformation of web radio in the future, in the way that technology developed for analogue radio, with possibilities including in-car web radio, walkman web radio, i-pod web radio and other more mobile variations of the same product. And with this increased mobility, and with more of the world getting steadily hooked up to the Internet, issues of the globalisation of web radio's musical output will surely become even more significant and pertinent than today.
BIBLIOGRAPHY:
Hendy, David (2000) Radio in the Global Age, Polity Press, Cambridge
Negus, Keith (1993) Global harmonies and local discords: transnational policies and practices in the European recording industry from Sreberny-Mohammadi et al (ed) (1997) Media in Context, Arnold, London
Priestman, Chris (2002) Web Radio: Radio Production for Internet Streaming, Focal Press, Oxford
Thornton, S, University of Sussex Lecture, The Globalisation of Music and Related Music Industries, History and Theory of the Media
Web Radio, Music and Globalisation
By Laura Callaghan
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